From 41e03b3d3e83bd0291d74813380a7e4bca7149f1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: ackman678 Date: Thu, 18 Oct 2018 18:20:35 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] subtitled videos --- motor1.md | 4 +- neuroanatomy2.md | 2 +- neurophysiology1.md | 4 +- neurophysiology2.md | 14 ++-- neurophysiology3.md | 170 +++++++++++++++++++++------------------- neurophysiology4.md | 171 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++--------------- neurotransmitters1.md | 8 +- neurotransmitters2.md | 4 +- olfaction-gustation.md | 2 +- signal-transduction.md | 4 +- vision1.md | 6 +- vision2.md | 2 +- 12 files changed, 229 insertions(+), 162 deletions(-) diff --git a/motor1.md b/motor1.md index 6c39d63..94a3efd 100644 --- a/motor1.md +++ b/motor1.md @@ -472,7 +472,7 @@ Note: ## Stretch reflex video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 16.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 16.1
Note: @@ -580,7 +580,7 @@ Note: ## Flexion reflex video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 16.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 16.2
Note: diff --git a/neuroanatomy2.md b/neuroanatomy2.md index 40e5a94..c882c13 100644 --- a/neuroanatomy2.md +++ b/neuroanatomy2.md @@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ Heidenhahn
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
-
Neuroscience 5e Animation 1.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 1.1
Note: diff --git a/neurophysiology1.md b/neurophysiology1.md index b9fe617..145a626 100644 --- a/neurophysiology1.md +++ b/neurophysiology1.md @@ -378,7 +378,7 @@ Note: ## Resting membrane potential video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 2.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 2.1
Note: @@ -572,7 +572,7 @@ I = g(Vm-Ex). g = conductance, no. of open channels. (Vm-Ex) = driving force ca ## Electrochemical equilibrium video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 2.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 2.2
Note: diff --git a/neurophysiology2.md b/neurophysiology2.md index f1b9771..9e9e529 100644 --- a/neurophysiology2.md +++ b/neurophysiology2.md @@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ The solution was to build an electrophysiological recording apparatus with feedb ## Action potential summary video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 2.3
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 2.3
Note: @@ -60,28 +60,28 @@ Note: 4. 0 mV: * `Pk = 0.5; Pna = 0.5; Pcl = 0; kOut = 1; kIn = 10; naOut = 10; naIn = 1; clIn = 11; clOut = 11` -* `(58)*log10( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) ) = 0 mV` +* `(58)*Math.log10( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) ) = 0 mV` * 0 mV: * `Pk = 1; Pna = 1; Pcl = 0; kOut = 1; kIn = 10; naOut = 10; naIn = 1; clIn = 11; clOut = 11` -* `(58)*log10( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) )` +* `(58)*Math.log10( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) )` * -59 mV (room temp and low Pna): * `Pk = 1; Pna = 0.001; Pcl = 0.5; kOut = 1; kIn = 10; naOut = 10; naIn = 1; clIn = 1; clOut = 11` -* `(58)*log10( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut)` +* `(58)*Math.log10( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut)` -62 mV (body temp and low Pna): * R = 8.3; F = 9.6e4; T = (273+37) * `Pk = 1; Pna = 0.001; Pcl = 0.5; kOut = 1; kIn = 10; naOut = 10; naIn = 1; clIn = 1; clOut = 11` -* `((R*T)/F)*log( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) )` +* `((R*T)/F)*Math.log( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) )` -69 mV (body temp and low Pna and physiol concentrations): * `R = 8.3; F = 9.6e4; T = (273+37)` * `Pk = 1; Pna = 0.05; Pcl = 0.45; kOut = 5; kIn = 140; naOut = 145; naIn = 5; clIn = 5; clOut = 110` -* `((R*T)/F)*log( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) )` +* `((R*T)/F)*Math.log( (Pk*kOut + Pna*naOut + Pcl*clIn) / (Pk*kIn + Pna*naIn + Pcl*clOut) )` Calculate the total concentration of all ions for these solutions. For every one NaCl that dissolves, two ions are produced (one Na⁺ and one Cl¯). Thus for 10 mmol/L NaCl outside there are (10 mmol/L)x(1 total Cl ions/NaCl) = 10mM. And for 1mM KCl outside there are (1 mmol/L)x(1 total Cl ions/KCl) = 1mM. Thus the total number of Cl⁻ ions per liter is 11mmol/L = 11mM @@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ Note: ## Voltage clamp method summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 3.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 3.1
Note: diff --git a/neurophysiology3.md b/neurophysiology3.md index 7e3d841..e711cee 100644 --- a/neurophysiology3.md +++ b/neurophysiology3.md @@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ Answer to myelinated question from last time: >It seems to have arisen independently in evolution several times in vertebrates, annelids and crustacea. ->absent in primitive members of the vertebrate line (hagfish and lampreys) +>absent in primitive members of the vertebrate line (hagfish and lampreys) >Myelin has not been reported in either molluscs or insects @@ -91,8 +91,7 @@ Makes it easy to introduce things to the extracellular side of the channel Note: - ---- +-- ## The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1991) @@ -106,7 +105,7 @@ Erwin Neher
-Bert Sakmann +Bert Sakmann
@@ -114,7 +113,7 @@ Bert Sakmann Note: - +Patch clamp established by E. Neher adn B. Sakmann at Max Planck Institute in Germany 1976. --- @@ -159,6 +158,8 @@ Patch a piece of membrane and block K currents. Do a bunch of short recordings w Transient channel opening in Na⁺ channels (inward current). +This research is from Bezanilla and Correa 1995, Vandenburg and Bezanilla 1991, Correa and Bezanilla 1994 + --- ## Measurements of ionic currents flowing through single Na⁺ channels @@ -177,12 +178,14 @@ Transient channel opening in Na⁺ channels (inward current). Note: -get something similar to this microscopic current shown at the top. +get something similar to this microscopic current shown at the top. -Average the microscopic currents together and you get something very similar. +Average the microscopic currents together and you get something very similar. Sum these microscopic inwa +This research is from Bezanilla and Correa 1995, Vandenburg and Bezanilla 1991, Correa and Bezanilla 1994 + --- ## Patch clamping K⁺ channels @@ -195,7 +198,7 @@ Sum these microscopic inwa Note: -Now let's examine patch clamp experimental data from K+ channels. +Now let's examine patch clamp experimental data from K+ channels. --- @@ -217,6 +220,8 @@ Note: Sustained channel opening in K⁺ channels (outward current). +This research is from Augustine and Bezanilla, Hille 2001; Augustine and Bezanilla 1990; Perozo et al 1991 + --- ## Measurements of ionic currents flowing through single K⁺ channels @@ -229,17 +234,19 @@ Sustained channel opening in K⁺ channels (outward current). -
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 4.2
+
Neuroscience 5e/6e Fig. 4.2
Note: -Sum a bunch of these microscopic channel currents and you get this top curve and which looks very similar to the macroscopic current curve as we’ve seen previously. +Sum a bunch of these microscopic channel currents and you get this top curve and which looks very similar to the macroscopic current curve as we’ve seen previously. + +This research is from from Augustine and Bezanilla, Hille 2001; Augustine and Bezanilla 1990; Perozo et al 1991 --- ## Functional states of voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels -
Neuroscience 5e fig. 4.3
+
Neuroscience 5e/6e Fig. 4.3
Note: @@ -263,7 +270,7 @@ So the conclusions are… ## Patch clamp method summary video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 4.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 4.1
Note: @@ -280,7 +287,7 @@ Note: Note: -Now everything going on in our nervous systems depends on the function of ion channels. And there are lots of them. +Now everything going on in our nervous systems depends on the function of ion channels. And there are lots of them. --- @@ -291,9 +298,9 @@ Now everything going on in our nervous systems depends on the function of ion ch Note: -Different classes of gated ion channels. +Different classes of gated ion channels. -voltage gated ion channels, such as we’ve been discussing over the last couple classes. +voltage gated ion channels, such as we’ve been discussing over the last couple classes. ligand gated channels such as those that bind neurotransmitters, will talk about more later and next class. @@ -419,7 +426,7 @@ X-ray crystallography ## Structure of the bacterial K⁺ channel -* Bacteria have K⁺ channels that are very similar in structure to mammalian K⁺ channels. Main difference is that they are not gated by voltage +* Bacteria have K⁺ channels that are very similar in structure to mammalian K⁺ channels. Main difference is that they are not gated by voltage * Could be crystallized in the bacterial membrane * 3D structure tells us a lot about function * Roderick Mackinnon Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2003 @@ -436,7 +443,7 @@ eukaryotic ## Structure of the bacterial K⁺ channel -A space-filling model of the KcsA channel, showing the pore. Ions (green balls) tend to occupy three sites in the channel, two in the selectivity filter and one in a pool of water in the center of the channel. +A space-filling model of the KcsA channel, showing the pore. Ions (green balls) tend to occupy three sites in the channel, two in the selectivity filter and one in a pool of water in the center of the channel.
red (–) charge; blue (+) charge; yellow hydrophobic
Doyle et al, Science 280:69, 1998
@@ -472,9 +479,9 @@ Note: Note: -Simplified model of bacterial K channel, showing you the pore and selectivity filter. +Simplified model of bacterial K channel, showing you the pore and selectivity filter. -helical domains of channel point negative charges towards cavity allowing K ions to become dehydrated and then push through selectivity filter through electrostatic repulsion. +helical domains of channel point negative charges towards cavity allowing K ions to become dehydrated and then push through selectivity filter through electrostatic repulsion. outside inside @@ -514,7 +521,7 @@ Note: remember water is a polar molecule. Has a net dipole moment of opposing charges in the hydrogen-oxygen bonds. -Larger cations cannot traverse the pore region, smaller cations like Na cannot enter the pore because the walls are just too far apart to stabilize a dehydrated Na ion long enough to pass through. +Larger cations cannot traverse the pore region, smaller cations like Na cannot enter the pore because the walls are just too far apart to stabilize a dehydrated Na ion long enough to pass through. Na is the most hydrated ion with 4 to 6 water molecules in the first shell. Binds water strongly, making a stable hydration shell and moving together with the cation. Any sodium movement is followed by H2O movement (water retention, excretion). @@ -531,7 +538,7 @@ K | 0.27 | 0.46 a quote from [http://web-books.com/MoBio/Memory/Channel.htm](http://web-books.com/MoBio/Memory/Channel.htm): ->To pass through the potassium channel, an ion must remove most of its surrounding water molecules, leaving only two - one at the front and another at the back. +>To pass through the potassium channel, an ion must remove most of its surrounding water molecules, leaving only two - one at the front and another at the back. The selectivity filter of the sodium channel is slightly larger than that of the potassium channel. It may accommodate a Na⁺ ion attached with three water molecules, but not enough for a K⁺ ion attached with three water molecules. @@ -574,13 +581,13 @@ Now we know from what we’ve learned over the past couple classes that unlike b [http://web-books.com/MoBio/Memory/Channel.htm :](http://web-books.com/MoBio/Memory/Channel.htm) ->There are many types of potassium channels. The one involved in the generation of action potentials is composed of four subunits, each is homologous to the Shaker protein (Fig. 3.2). The hydrophobicity profile indicates that it contains six hydrophobic segments, designated as S1 - S6. These segments are likely to be the transmembrane domains. Other experimental results suggests that the P-region is lining the channel pore. +>There are many types of potassium channels. The one involved in the generation of action potentials is composed of four subunits, each is homologous to the Shaker protein (Fig. 3.2). The hydrophobicity profile indicates that it contains six hydrophobic segments, designated as S1 - S6. These segments are likely to be the transmembrane domains. Other experimental results suggests that the P-region is lining the channel pore. @@ -706,11 +713,11 @@ already learned about tetrodotoxin from puffer fish. blocks voltage gated Na cha saxitoxin similar (homologue) to ttx, produced by dinoflagellates and possible effects from ‘red tide’ or eating shellfish that have injested these dinoflagellates. -scorpions paralyse prey by injecting alpha-toxins (left panels). Slow inactivation of Na channels, prolonging the AP and messing up information flow in CNS. Beta-toxins in scorpion venom shift the voltage dependence of Na channel activation (right panel), causing Na channels to open at potential much more negative than normal inducing uncontrolled AP firing. +scorpions paralyse prey by injecting alpha-toxins (left panels). Slow inactivation of Na channels, prolonging the AP and messing up information flow in CNS. Beta-toxins in scorpion venom shift the voltage dependence of Na channel activation (right panel), causing Na channels to open at potential much more negative than normal inducing uncontrolled AP firing. Some alkaloid toxins (batrachotoxin, produced by S. American frogs) do both of these mechanisms. -Similar toxins from plants (aconitine from buttercups, veratridine from lilies) and insecticidal toxins (pyrethrins) produced by chrysanthemums and rhododendrons. +Similar toxins from plants (aconitine from buttercups, veratridine from lilies) and insecticidal toxins (pyrethrins) produced by chrysanthemums and rhododendrons. dendrotoxin from wasps affects K channels @@ -728,9 +735,46 @@ charybdotoxin from scorpions K channels --- -## Diseases caused by altered ion channels +## Diseases caused by ion channel mutations -
+
+
+ +* Channelopathies: genetic diseases resulting from mutations in ion channel genes + * e.g. >50 neurological disorders, >40 cardiac disorders ([Kim 2014](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935107/)) + +
+ +
+
+ +GEFS: generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures, begins at infancy and continues through puberty. Mapped to two mutations, one on an alpha Na channel subunit and one on a beta subunit. Cause slowing of sodium channel inactivation + +Myotonia: muscle contractions + +Paralysis: muscle weakness + +
+ +
Neuroscience 5e Box 4D; +see also Neuroscience 6e 'Clinical applications' p. 75-77
+ + +Note: + + +More than 20 different inhereited diseases from from mutations in Na channels alone. Cystic fibrosis results from chloride channel dysfunction (and altered fluid movements, chloride gradients often used for cell volume, fluid movements). + +ataxia: greek for ‘without order’ or ‘incoordination’. Movement coordination problems. + +paralysis: muscle weakness + +myotonia: muscle contraction + + + -- ## Epilepsy can result from mutated Na⁺ channels -
Neuroscience 5e Box 4D
+
Neuroscience 5e Box 4D; +see also Neuroscience 6e 'Clinical applications' p. 75-77
Note: -You can see the the slower inactivation kinetics in this figure here in patch clamp recordings from normal and a number of different Na channel mutants. This slowing of Na inactivation is just enough to mess up spike patterns in single neurons and elicit hyperexcitability that results in seizures in networks of connected neurons. +You can see the the slower inactivation kinetics in this figure here in patch clamp recordings from normal and a number of different Na channel mutants. This slowing of Na inactivation is just enough to mess up spike patterns in single neurons and elicit hyperexcitability that results in seizures in networks of connected neurons. GEFS: generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures +
Neuroscience 5e Animation 4.2
--> Ouabain, plant 'arrow' poison traditionally from africa from the Acokanthera schimperi and Strophanthus gratus plants. Binds to the Na+/K+ pump. Cardiac dysfunction ensues. + +Used together with + +Radioactive Na efflux measurements and radioactive K influx measurements used with ATP synthesis inhibitors (e.g dinitrophenol) to help demonstrate that an active Na/K pump is responsible for producing ion conentraiton gradients in squid axon (Hodgkin and Keynes 1955). diff --git a/neurophysiology4.md b/neurophysiology4.md index c2dc523..e6aeb87 100644 --- a/neurophysiology4.md +++ b/neurophysiology4.md @@ -23,9 +23,9 @@ and electrical... ## Electrical and chemical synapses have different mechanisms for transmission -
chemical synapse
Neuroscience Box 5A
-
electrical synapse
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 5.1
-
electrical synapse
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 5.1
+
chemical synapse
Neuroscience 6e Fig. 5.1
+
electrical synapse
Neuroscience 6e Fig. 5.1
+
electrical synapse
Neuroscience 6e Fig. 5.1
Note: @@ -52,14 +52,14 @@ quadrillion synapses, 10^15 in our nervous system ## Gap junctions allow current to flow from one cell to the next -
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 5.1
+
6e Fig. 5.2
Note: * connexins— extracellular loops and disulfide bridges -* 3.5nm separating the apposed lipid bilayers connected through connexon hemichannels +* 3.5nm separating the apposed lipid bilayers connected through connexon hemichannels * 20-40nm separation at a chemical synaptic cleft * passive ionic current flow, small substance like ATP and second messengers @@ -73,18 +73,18 @@ Current in the presynaptic cell is not felt directly by post-synaptic cell for a ## Electrical synapses -
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 5.2
+
Neuroscience 6e Fig. 5.3, 5e Fig. 5.2; from Fushpan and Potter, 1959
Note: -In Crayfish an action potential in one neuron spreads quickly to the next +In Crayfish an action potential in one neuron spreads quickly to the next in fraction of a millisecond. -- ## Electrical synapses -
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 5.2
+
Neuroscience 6e Fig. 5.3, 5e Fig. 5.2; from Beierlein et al. 2000
Note: @@ -109,9 +109,45 @@ important in diseases of pathological oscillations/synchrony like childhood epil Electrical synapses and synchronization characterisitc of cells that stimulate pulses of pituitary hormones (e.g oxytocin/vasopressin secretion). -medulla and pons, medulla: nucleus ambiguous, pre-botzinger complex, solitay nucleus +medulla and pons, medulla: nucleus ambiguous, pre-botzinger complex, solitary nucleus -connexins (chordates), innexins, pannexins, (invertebrates) +inferior olivary nucleus: source of climbing fiber input to cerebellar cortex. ultastructure adn ephys (Llinas 1974) found electrical coupling between pairs of neurons in cat inferior olive. Same thing demonstrated later in guinea pig, rat, mouse. Also dye coupling. 2-8Hz synchronous oscillasions. [^Connors:2004] + +thalamic reticular nucleus (thin interneuron layer) of dorsal thalamus. Spatially localized coupling (cells 40 um apart). [^Connors:2004] + +hippocampus. between pyramidal neurons and also interneurons. [^Connors:2004] + +in neocortex only rarely found between pyramidal neurons, often between interneurons. 'Late spiking' L1 interneurons make electrical synapse with other neurons of the same class 83% of time but with other interneuron types only 2% of time. Maybe necessary for gamma frequency rhthyms. + +retina has widespread electrical coupling. Extensive between amacrine cells, scoptopic vision impaired in Cx36 KO mice from loss in rods and cones and between amacrine cells and bipolar cells. + +Cx36 in both olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb. between granule cells. between mitral cells in same glomerulus. + +Early in development, first postnatal week in rat electrical coupling extensive between motor neurons in spinal cord. Declines during first postnatal week but still present in adult. + + +gap junction proteins: +connexins (chordates), innexins (invertebrates). Similar topologies but dissimilar gene/amino acid sequences. Also pannexins in + +connexins : 20 isoforms in humans and mice. 40 connecxin orthologues across species. Cx36 36kDa protein, hexamer possibly only forming hemichannels homotypically, specific to neurons. [^Connors:2004] + +50% of mammalian connexins widely expressed in CNS. Some strong in astrocytes (Cx26,30,43) or oligodendrocytes (Cx29,32,47) [^Connors:2004] + +gap junctions first found and studied in invertebrates. Innexins for gap junctions in drosophila, c elegans molluscs, annelids, playhelminthes. Mammalian pannexin genes are similar to innexins and Px1 and Px2 mRNA is present in pyramidal neurons and interneurons of the hippocampus. + + +gap junctions may be sensitive to Ca2+ influx, at least at high concentrations. But are very sensitive to small intracellular (but not extracellular) pH changes and intracellular pH changes occur doing neuronal activity. + +[^Connors:2004]: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131128 + +Carbenoxolone (from licorice root) not very specific for Cx36. + +Quinine selectively blocks Cx36,50,45. Mefloquine is a derivative that is 100x more potent. + + +Cx36 KO mouse has no obvious behavioral phenotype other than retinal deficits[^Connors:2004]. + +c elegans: 959 total cells in adult hermaphrodite. 302 are neurons, 58 are glia. Every cell in worm expresss innexins, most of the 20+ isoforms are expressed in nervous system and every neuron is believed to form gap junctions. 7000 synapses. 6393, 890 electrical junctions. 1410 NMJ. --- @@ -146,7 +182,7 @@ Note: ## Synaptic transmission -
+
Neuroscience 6e Fig. 5.4
Note: @@ -155,15 +191,17 @@ Note: * Ca²⁺ influx raises [Ca²⁺]i in the nerve terminal * Elevated [Ca²⁺]i triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane of the presynaptic neuron and exocytosis * Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft where it diffuses about -* Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors in the postsynaptic neuron causing channels in that cell to open or close -* Direct action on ligand gated channels -* Indirect action on G-protein coupled channels +* Neurotransmitter binds to specific neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic neuron causing ion channels in that cell to open or close * The neurotransmitter is inactivated and/or removed from the synaptic cleft (active transport into presynaptic neuron or glial cells or both) * The vesicular membrane is recovered by endocytosis and recycled +neurotransmitter receptors : +* direction action through ligand gated channels +* indirect action through G protein coupled receptors + --- -## 11 steps of synaptic transmission +## The steps of synaptic transmission
@@ -232,6 +270,8 @@ Otto Loewi, 1921 Free acetylcholine acts on **muscarinic receptors** which **hyperpolarize** the cells of the SA node and slow the conduction of the action potential through the AV node. This slows heart rate. Acetylcholine also decreases Ca2+ influx which lowers the heart's force of contraction. +This figure no longer is in 6e. + -- ## The discovery of acetylcholine @@ -257,7 +297,6 @@ Note: * Sir Henry Dale purified ACh (1914) and showed that it is vagus nerve substance * Can apply ACh to muscle and evoke an end plate potential (EPP) -* ACh action has same pharmacology as vagus nerve substance in that it is sensitive to curare (a plant poison that kills by preventing muscle contraction). Competes with curare for receptor binding * Henry Dale and Otto Loewi shared Nobel prize (1936): >"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses" @@ -266,9 +305,11 @@ Note: Note: -*Curare was used as a paralyzing poison by South American indigenous people. The prey was shot by arrows or blowgun darts dipped in curare, leading to asphyxiation owing to the inability of the victim's respiratory muscles to contract.* -*Curare /kʊˈrɑːri/[1] or /kjʊˈrɑːri/[2] is a common name for various plant extract alkaloid arrow poisons originating from Central and South America. These poisons function by competitively and reversibly inhibiting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a subtype of acetylcholine receptor found at the neuromuscular junction. This causes weakness of the skeletal muscles and, when administered in a sufficient dose, eventual death by asphyxiation due to paralysis of the diaphragm.* +* curare used as a paralyzing poison by South American indigenous peoples for hunting that causes respiratory asphixiation (diaphragm muscle paralysis) in prey +* alkaloid arrow poisons that are competitive and reversible inhibitors of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) + +* ACh action has same pharmacology as vagus nerve substance in that it is sensitive to curare (a plant poison that kills by preventing muscle contraction). Competes with curare for receptor binding --- @@ -316,6 +357,8 @@ can act at long distances, from the cell body --> +This box figure also no longer in 6e. + --- ## Synaptic transmission is quantal @@ -327,9 +370,9 @@ can act at long distances, from the cell body Note: -How have we come to learn about the properties of chemical synaptic transmission? +How have we come to learn about the properties of chemical synaptic transmission? - --- ## Synaptic transmission summary video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.1
Note: ---- - -## Midterm tuesday + diff --git a/neurotransmitters1.md b/neurotransmitters1.md index 6452604..c002ce9 100644 --- a/neurotransmitters1.md +++ b/neurotransmitters1.md @@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ Note: ## Acetylcholine synthesis video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.1
Note: @@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ Note: ## Glutamate synthesis video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.2
Note: @@ -536,7 +536,7 @@ Note: ## Dopamine synthesis video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.3
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.3
Note: @@ -581,7 +581,7 @@ Note: ## Norepinephrine synthesis video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.4
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 6.4
Note: diff --git a/neurotransmitters2.md b/neurotransmitters2.md index 11d3fe1..a520f80 100644 --- a/neurotransmitters2.md +++ b/neurotransmitters2.md @@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ Effector enzymes for activated G-proteins include adenylyl cyclase (ATP->cAMP), ## Neurotransmitter receptors video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.3
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.3
Note: @@ -471,7 +471,7 @@ Note: ## Summation of postsynaptic potentials video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.2
--- diff --git a/olfaction-gustation.md b/olfaction-gustation.md index d92a4b4..f0897ea 100644 --- a/olfaction-gustation.md +++ b/olfaction-gustation.md @@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ Camphor is the smell of turpintine. Aromatic Note: -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 15.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 15.1
--- diff --git a/signal-transduction.md b/signal-transduction.md index 8cae6ff..fdb0034 100644 --- a/signal-transduction.md +++ b/signal-transduction.md @@ -244,7 +244,7 @@ Note: ## Calcium second messaging video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 7.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 7.2
Note: @@ -472,7 +472,7 @@ Note: ## Chemical signaling mechanisms video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 5.2
Note: diff --git a/vision1.md b/vision1.md index 14c6b68..acbd78f 100644 --- a/vision1.md +++ b/vision1.md @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ Note: ## Anatomy of the human eye video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 11.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 11.1
Note: @@ -345,7 +345,7 @@ cGMP, cyclic nucleotide gated channel ## Phototransduction summary video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 11.2
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 11.2
Note: @@ -781,7 +781,7 @@ Note: ## Information flow in the retina video summary -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 11.3
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 11.3
Note: diff --git a/vision2.md b/vision2.md index 0aab2da..68fa45f 100644 --- a/vision2.md +++ b/vision2.md @@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ Projection of the Binocular Field of View Relates to Crossing of Fibers in Optic ## Visual pathways summary video -
Neuroscience 5e Animation 12.1
+
Neuroscience 5e Animation 12.1
Note: