From a72af03276255e9c77da93c099346ae7e5fdeda7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: ackman678 Date: Tue, 27 Sep 2016 15:40:53 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] lecture02 --- 2016-09-17-lecture01.md | 30 +- 2016-09-18-methods.md | 97 +++ 2016-09-24-lecture02.md | 1295 ++++++++++++++------------------------- 3 files changed, 593 insertions(+), 829 deletions(-) diff --git a/2016-09-17-lecture01.md b/2016-09-17-lecture01.md index eca1cb0..c8a7386 100644 --- a/2016-09-17-lecture01.md +++ b/2016-09-17-lecture01.md @@ -35,14 +35,14 @@ REASON YOU CANNOT ENROLL: ## Site keyboard bindings -* Navigate: `arrow keys` and `spacebar` +* Navigate: and `spacebar` * Menu: `m` * Fullscreen: `f` -* Overview: `o` or `esc` -* Zoom object: `alt/option–click` +* Overview: `o` or `esc` or +* Zoom object: * Print: `...lecture.html?print-pdf` -Recommend browser is Chrome on a laptop/PC. Some features (e.g. Zoom object or overview) may not work on tablet/touch screen devices. +Recommend browser is Chrome on a laptop/PC. Some features (e.g. full screen, zoom) may not work on tablet/touch screen devices. --- @@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ The mouse is a common model in neuroscience research.
Mouse brain 3D rendering, [Brain Explorer 2](http://mouse.brain-map.org/static/brainexplorer)
-
Green labeled neurons inside a mouse brain
+
Green fluorescent protein (GFP) labeled neurons inside a mouse brain
Note: @@ -506,6 +506,26 @@ Note: Now there are two basic cell types in the nervous system, neurons and glia. We will revisit neurons more in a few minutes and will be talking all about their function over the ensuing lectures but first lets touch briefly on some of the types of glial cells and their known functions. +Up to 90% of brain cells in mammals. + +During evolution the glia/neuron ratio basically follows a power relation ship [^Herculano-Houzel-2014] y(x) = kx^n where on a log-log plot k is the intercept and n is the slope. Some of this original comparative estimates of glia/neuron ratios among animals was performed by Friede (1954) + +Perhaps only 10% of cells in invertebrates like drosophila. + +Other model organisms also have nervous system support cells like glia-- C. elegans has just 56 total 'glial cells'. They fall into three major populations (24 sheath cells, 26 socket cells, and 6 GLR). The 6 GLR cells are mesodermally derived. + + +[^Herculano-Houzel-2014]: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24807023 +[^Friede-1954]: Friede R. 1954. Der quantitative Anteil der Glia an der Cortex entwicklung. Acta Anat 20:290–296. + +
Herculano-Houzel, 2014 Fig. 1. cetacean open circles. primate closed circles. insectivore crosses. carnivore open square. afrotherian closed triangle.
+ +afrotheria +: african species +: shrews, west indian manatees, elephants, moles + + + --- ## Types of glia diff --git a/2016-09-18-methods.md b/2016-09-18-methods.md index 04fd56d..355c983 100644 --- a/2016-09-18-methods.md +++ b/2016-09-18-methods.md @@ -100,4 +100,101 @@ Note: +--- + + +## Brain imaging techniques + +* Computerized tomography (CT) scan– uses X-rays in 3-dimensions to generate a brain image +* Can be digitally sectioned to show internal areas of the brain +* Can distinguish between grey matter and white matter, see the ventricles, has resolution of several millimeters + +
+ +Note: + + + +--- + +## Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) + +* Uses rotating magnets to generate image +* Non-invasive +* Can view images from any angle +* Resolution under 1 mm +* Can be adapted to do functional MRI imaging + +Note: + + + +--- + +## Tumor detection + +MRI +CT-SCAN + +
+ +Note: + + + +--- + +## Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) + +
Neuroscience 5e Animation 1.1
+ +Note: + + + +--- + +## functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) + +* Oxy-hemoglobin and deoxy-hemoglobin have different magnetic resonance signals +* Brain areas activated by a specific task utilize O2, then a pulse of O2 comes back and creates an influx of oxy-hemoglobin +* Can repeat task many times over +* Spatial resolution– millimeters +* Temporal resolution– seconds + +Note: + + + +--- + +## fMRI + + + +
+ +Note: + + +--- + +## Mapping brain activity with fMRI + +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 27.6
+ +Note: + + + +--- + +## Lie detection with fMRI + +
+ +Note: + +build a new age lie detector + --- diff --git a/2016-09-24-lecture02.md b/2016-09-24-lecture02.md index bd401c9..979bd9d 100644 --- a/2016-09-24-lecture02.md +++ b/2016-09-24-lecture02.md @@ -1,10 +1,7 @@ ## Neural Systems -* Circuits that do the same kinds of things are grouped into “systems”, for example sensory systems and motor systems. - -* Many neurons function between these systems, called associational systems. These are very complex and the least well characterized systems. - -2016-01-12 13:41:15 +* Circuits that do the same kinds of things are grouped into 'systems', e.g. sensory systems and motor systems +* Many neurons function between these systems, called associational systems. Associational systems are the most complex and least well characterized systems. Note: @@ -14,168 +11,225 @@ First of all it is a system of systems. In other words… --- -## The Major Components of the Nervous System and Their Functional Relationships +## Major components of the nervous system and their functional relationships -
+
central nervous system (CNS)
[C. Krebs CC BY-NC-SA, Univ. British Columbia](http://www.neuroanatomy.ca/3D_files/3D_index.html?id=1)
+ +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 1.10
+ +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 1.10
Note: This illustrates the two top level systems of the nervous system, the CNS containing the brain and spinal cord and the PNS containing nerves and ganglia exiting the spinal cord. ---- - -## The Major Components of the Nervous System and Their Functional Relationships - -
- -Note: - This diagram outlines the functional hierarchy of different components or systems within the whole nervous system including relations between internal and external environment and sensory receptors in the PNS as well as skeletal muscle and smooth, cardiac muscles that the nervous system controls. - - right vagus nerve primarily innervates the SA node, whereas the left vagus innervates the AV node - - pns supplies smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. functions to maintain homeostasis, and is concerned with involunary functions. ---- - -## Cell bodies that do similar things are grouped together - -* PNS– Nerve cell bodies are located in ganglia (ganglia have neurons and glia in them). Dorsal root ganglia, cranial nerve ganglia - -* CNS– Nuclei are compact accumulations of neurons having roughly similar connections. - -* Cortices (cortex) sheets of cells of similar function. - -Note: - -The term we use for cell bodies grouped together in the PNS is ganglia. In the CNS cell bodies are accumulated together as nuclei or if they are arranged in highly ordered sheets or lamina it is called cortex. - - - ---- - -## Cell groupings: cortex vs nuclei - -Cerebral cortex - -Thalamic Nuclei - - - -
- -
- -Note: - - --- ## Anatomy terms * Nerves– bundles of axons, enveloped by glial cells that myelinate them - * White matter– areas of axon tracts - * Grey matter– areas of cell bodies +
B. Crawford and K. McBurney, Univ. of Victoria
+ + Note: +-- + +## Common techniques to visualize brain structure + +
Cell stain (e.g. Nissl/Cresyl violet, H&E)
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
+
Fiber stain (e.g. , Heidenhahn, Luxol fast blue)
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
+ + +Note: + +- Cell stain is Nissl stain +- Fiber stain is Luxol Fast blue + +Luxol fast blue stain +: stain and observe myelin for light microscopy +: a copper phthalocyanine dye +: soluble in alcohol +: binds bases found in lipoproteins of myelin sheath + +Hematoxylin and eosin stain +: H&E stain +: Hematoxylin is also called natural black 1, it is a chemical from the heartwood of the logwood tree +: hemalum is formed from aluminum ions and hematein (an oxidation product of hematoxylin) and binds to DNA, staining nuclei dark blue +: eosin stains hydrophilic cytoplasm, generally intra- or extra- cellular proteins staining tissue red + +Nissl stain +: basic dyes (e.g. aniline, thionine, or cresyl violet) +: stain negatively charged RNA blue +: Nissl substance (rough endoplasmic reticulum) + +Thionine +: thionine acetate or Lauth's violet +: tetramethyl thionine is methylene blue + +aniline +: aromatic amine +: precursor to polyurethane and many industrial chemicals +: indigo dye prepared from aniline + +Nissl substance +: large granules of RER with rosettes of free ribosomes +: sites of protein synthesis +: found in neurons +: named for Franz Nissl + +Heidenhahn +: 1892 +: lithium carbonate +: myelin stain + + + +-- + +## Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) + +
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
+ +
Neuroscience 5e Animation 1.1
+ +Note: + +MRI + +* Uses rotating magnets to generate image +* Non-invasive +* Can view images from any angle +* Resolution under 1 mm +* Can be adapted to do functional MRI imaging + +fMRI + +* Oxy-hemoglobin and deoxy-hemoglobin have different magnetic resonance signals +* Brain areas activated by a specific task utilize O2, then a pulse of O2 comes back and creates an influx of oxy-hemoglobin +* Can repeat task many times over +* Spatial resolution– millimeters +* Temporal resolution– seconds --- -## White and grey matter +## Cell bodies that do similar things are grouped together -
+* PNS– Nerve cell bodies are located in ganglia (ganglia have neurons and glia in them). Dorsal root ganglia, cranial nerve ganglia +* CNS– Nuclei are compact accumulations of neurons having roughly similar connections +* Cortices (cortex)– sheets of cells of similar function Note: +The term we use for cell bodies grouped together in the PNS is ganglia. In the CNS cell bodies are accumulated together as nuclei or if they are arranged in highly ordered sheets or lamina it is called cortex. + +Cortex +: latin for bark +: outermost (or superficial) layer of an organ +: kidney cortex + + +-- + +## Cell groupings: cortex vs nuclei + +
Cerebral cortex and thalamic nuclei
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/2060_cell_labelled.html)
+ + +Note: + +Here is one of those cell body violet stained sections-- you can see the cortical sheet and different subcortical nuclei in the thalamus, etc. We will go over this in more detail later. --- ## Basic parts of the CNS -* Spinal cord - -* Brain stem - -* medulla - -* pons +
+
+* cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) +* diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus) +* cerebellum * midbrain +* pons +* medulla +* spinal cord -* Cerebellum +
-* Forebrain +
-* diencephalon + -* cerebral hemispheres - -
Note: These are the basic parts of the CNS ---- +Forebrain -## Words used to describe locations in the CNS - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Words used to describe the three axis of the brain - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Components of the Central Nervous System - -
- -Note: +Brain stem includes the midbrain, pons, medulla, and a portion of the spinal cord Think about how the nerves represent incoming and outgoing info from a specific location on the body. +cervical enlargement + +lumbar enlargement +: nerves which supply the lower limbs + +cauda equina +: nerves that innervate the pelvic organs and lower limbs. Includes motor innervation of the hips, knees, ankles, feet, internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter. + +Spinal nerves: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal + +--- + +## Anatomical terminology for CNS locations + +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A1.1
+ + +Note: + + + +--- + +## Anatomical terminology for the three axes of the brain + +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A1.2
+ +Note: + + --- ## Spinal cord -* Extends from the base of the skull to the first lumbar vertebra. - -* Receives sensory info from skin, joints, and muscles of trunk and limbs and contains motor neurons responsible for both voluntary and reflexive movements. - -* Nerve fibers bundled in 31 pairs of spinal nerves. There is a sensory division (dorsal root ganglia) and a motor division (ventral root). - -* Is thicker in regions that innervate the limbs. +* Extends from the base of the skull to the first lumbar vertebra +* Receives sensory info from skin, joints, and muscles of trunk and limbs and contains motor neurons responsible for both voluntary and reflexive movements +* Nerve fibers bundled in 31 pairs of spinal nerves. There is a sensory division (dorsal root ganglia) and a motor division (ventral root) +* Is thicker in regions that innervate the limbs Note: Lets start with the spinal cord which in human contains about 1 billion of your 100 billion neurons in your nervous system. - It extends… It receives sensory… @@ -186,13 +240,13 @@ Nerve fibers… Is thicker… - +Cervical enlargement, lumbar enlargement --- ## Spinal cord -
+
Note: @@ -202,93 +256,45 @@ This illustrates the overall structure of the spinal cord. ## Internal anatomy of the spinal cord -* Contains both white and grey matter. - -* Grey matter shaped like an “H”. Dorsal horns and ventral horns. - -* Dorsal horns contain sensory relay neurons– receives input from periphery - -* Ventral horns contains motor nuclei that innervate muscles– send output - -* White matter contains longitudinal tracts of ascending and descending axons grouped together by function. +* Contains both white and grey matter +* Grey matter shaped like an 'H'. Dorsal horns and ventral horns +* Dorsal horns contain sensory relay neurons– receives input from periphery (afferent) +* Ventral horns contains motor neurons that innervate muscles– send output (efferent) +* Interneurons are in intermediate zone +* White matter contains longitudinal tracts of ascending and descending axons grouped together by function Note: +- *Preganglionic visceral motor neurons (innervate glands) are found in the intermediate/lateral region* --- -## Internal structure of the spinal cord +## Internal anatomy of the spinal cord + +
-
Note: - - ---- - -## Title Text - -* Gray matter expanded to incorporate more sensory input from limbs and more cell bodies for motor control of limbs - -Cervical Enlargement - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## General rules of spinal cord organization - -* Neurons and axons that process and relay sensory information (afferents) are in dorsal spinal cord. - -* Preganglionic visceral motor neurons (innervate glands) are found in the intermediate/lateral region. - -* Interneurons are in intermediate zone. - -* Motor neurons and axons are found in the ventral portion of the cord. - -Note: - - - ---- - -## Gray Matter: Organization - -
- -Note: - - +sympathetic chain ganglia +: stress, flight or flight response, epinephrine +: 20–30K cell bodies --- ## Spinal cord tracts -* Dorsal column– sensory signals travels up it to the brain. +
+
-* Lateral columns– also called the cortico-spinal tracts. Take signals from brain and sends it to the muscles. +* Dorsal column– sensory signals travels up it to the brain +* Lateral columns– also called the cortico-spinal tracts. Carries signals from brain to interneurons and motor neurons in ventral horn +* Ventral columns (sometimes called anterolateral column)– carry pain signals up and motor signals down -* Ventral columns (sometimes called anterolateral column)– carry pain signals up and motor signals down. +
-Note: - - - ---- - -## Spinal cord tracts - -Nissl stain (cell bodies) - -Myelin stain - -
+
Cell (top) and fiber stains (bottom)
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A6
Note: @@ -298,240 +304,157 @@ Lateral columns-also called the cortico-spinal tracts. Take info from brain and Ventral columns (sometimes called anterolateral column)- carry pain info up and motor info down. +*Cervical enlargement: Gray matter expanded to incorporate more sensory input from limbs and more cell bodies for motor control of limbs* +*Rexed's laminae are cytoarchitectonic divisions of spinal cord gray matter, see Table A1* --- ## Brain stem -* Target or source for all cranial nerves that deal with sensory and motor function in the head and neck. - -* Nuclei within brainstem are the targets and sources of these nerves. - -* Also is a throughway which all info going up and down must pass. - -* Because of its small area and restricted blood supply-it is very susceptible to damage. +* Target or source for all cranial nerves that deal with sensory and motor function in the head and neck +* Nuclei within brainstem are the targets and sources of these nerves +* Also is a throughway which all info going up and down must pass +* Because of its small area and restricted blood supply– it is very susceptible to damage Note: Now let’s talk about the brain stem, which is located more rostrally to the spinal cords locations we just discussed. - - The brain stem is a target or source… And all information from higher order or more rostral brain structures that goes to or from the spinal cord must pass through the brain stem. - - - - - --- -## Title Text +## Subdivisions of the brain stem -Brain stem - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Title Text - -Close up of the brain stem - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Brain stem - -* +
+
* Medulla– regulates blood pressure and respiration. - * Ventral pons– pontine nuclei, relay signals from cortex to the cerebellum - * Dorsal pons– respiration taste and sleep +* Midbrain– auditory and visual systems, substantia nigra pars compacta (dopaminergic neurons). Deteriorates in Parkinson’s disease. -* Midbrain– auditory and visual systems, substantia nigra pars compacta (dopaminergic neurons). Deteriorates in Parkinson’s disease. +
+ +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A7
Note: - --- -## Title Text +## Brain stem cranial nerves -Brain stem +
+ + -
- -
Note: From the brain stem there emerges 12 left-right pairs of cranial nerves that carry afferent or efferent information mostly concerned with sensory and motor functions of the head. The exception is the the vagus nerve arising from the medulla which carries critical autonomic signals for your visceral organs and heart without which you cannot live. ---- +-- -## Title Text +## Cranial nerves -Cranial nerves +
+
+ +number | name | function +--- | --- | --- +I | Olfactory Nerve | Smell +II | Optic Nerve | Vision +III | Oculomotor Nerve | Eye movement; pupil constriction +IV | Trochlear Nerve | Eye movement +V | Trigeminal Nerve | Somatosensory information (touch, pain) from the face and head; muscles for chewing +VI | Abducens Nerve | Eye movement +VII | Facial Nerve | Taste (anterior 2/3 of tongue); somatosensory information from ear; controls muscles used in facial expression +VIII | Vestibulocochlear Nerve | Hearing; balance +IX | Glossopharyngeal Nerve | Taste (posterior 1/3 of tongue); Somatosensory information from tongue, tonsil, pharynx; controls some muscles used in swallowing +X | Vagus Nerve | Sensory, motor and autonomic functions of viscera (glands, digestion, heart rate) +XI | Spinal Accessory | Nerve Controls muscles used in head movement +XII | Hypoglossal Nerve | Controls muscles of tongue + +
Note: This lists these 12 cranial nerves and their relevant sensory and/or motor function they carry. Notice that many of the nerves carry mixtures of sensory and motor information, which you could see with the color coding on the previous slide. Also notice that 4 of the 12 nerves concern sensory and motor information from the eyes. In fact the cranial nerve containing the most fibers is the optic nerve which contains 1.2 million axons that carries all the information necessary to perceive the visual world around you (compare with 130 million photoreceptors and 0.7 to 1.5 million RGCs) - - --- -## Title Text +## Midbrain -Cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem +
[C. Krebs CC BY-NC-SA, Univ. British Columbia](http://www.neuroanatomy.ca/MRIs/mri_sagittal.html?id=1)
-
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Title Text - -Cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Title Text - -Midbrain - -
Note: The tectum of the midbrain, which is latin for ‘roof’ contains the superior and inferior colliculi and is important for processing visual and auditory information as well as shaping motor commands for orienting the head and body. - Ventral to the cerebral aqueduct through which cerebral spinal fluid circulates, you will find the tegmentum of the midbrain which contains the —> ---- +-- -## Title Text +## Parkinson’s- loss of dopamine making neurons in the midbrain's substantia nigra -* + -Parkinson’s- loss of dopamine making neurons in the midbrain - -
+
B. Crawford and K. McBurney, Univ. of Victoria
Note: substantia nigra pars compacta, a nucleus containing neurons making the neurotransmitter dopamine that are important for regulating motor movements via their connections with the basal ganglia and which are devastated in parkinson’s disease. - - Now you’ve all heard the phrase ‘running around like a chicken with its head cut off’ —> - - -dark appearance due to high levels of neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons - -Neuromelanin is directly biosynthesized from L-DOPA, precursor to dopamine, by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) - - +*dark appearance due to high levels of dark pigment neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons* +*Neuromelanin is directly biosynthesized from L-DOPA, precursor to dopamine, by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)* --- -## Title Text +## The brainstem is all you need to live -The brainstem is all you need to live - -[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ATz3AdbjyRI](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ATz3AdbjyRI) - -Mike, as everyone knows, was the arguably lucky fowl who survived a beheading - -by a Colorado farmer in 1945, thriving for 18 months with only a brain stem. Fed - -on corn dropped directly into his gullet, Mike choked to death during a sideshow - -tour in 1947, when the farmer — after forging a new and profitable relationship - -with Mike — was unable to clear his esophagus, having forgotten to bring along - -the eyedropper he used for that purpose. - -
+
Mike the headless chicken
Note: Well here is a grotesque way of convincing you that all you need to live is your brainstem… ---- - -## Cerebellum - -
- -Note: - -The cerebellum is located dorsal to the brainstem. +* survived an axe beheading by Colorado farmer in 1945, +* lived for 18 months with only a brain stem +* Fed corn dropped directly into his gullet +* Mike choked to death during a sideshow tour in 1947, when the farmer was unable to clear Mike's esophagus --- ## Cerebellum * Two hemispheres, several lobes divided by fissures - -* Neurons in sheets, called cortex. - +* Neurons in sheets, called cortex * Receives sensory input from spinal cord, motor info from cerebral cortex, balance info from inner ear and vestibular organs +* Primarily used motor control, particularly in making postural adjustments and in fine-tuning movements +* Essential for the coordination, planning of movements, learning motor tasks and storing this information -* Primarily used motor control, particularly in making postural adjustments and in fine-tuning movements. +
-* Essential for the coordination, planning of movements, learning motor tasks and storing this information. Note: +Cerebellum is latin for 'little brain.' + +The cerebellum is located dorsal to the brainstem. + It has two… Neurons are form cortical sheets. @@ -542,41 +465,45 @@ Receives… ## Cerebellum -
+ + + + -
+
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
+
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
+
C. Golgi Fig. 4 Nobel lecture
-
-
Note: Cerebellum is latin for ‘little brain’, and it does have a striking organization with lobes and fissures similar to the folding of the cerebral cortex to increase surface area and packing density of neuronal interconnections. You can see here its main cell body layer, obvious in this purple nissl stain for cell bodies here. It’s in this layer where you will find the beautiful purkinje neurons that we saw images of in lecture 01. - --- ## Forebrain - - -
+
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A2
Note: -Now let’s use our forebrains to learn about the forebrain. +Now we're gonna use our forebrains to learn about the forebrain. + +Cerebrum +: the principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and right, separated by a fissure +: cerebral hemispheres– cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb +: develops from embryonic structure the telencephalon + --- ## Diencephalon * Contains the thalamus and hypothalamus - -* Thalamus– “relay station to the cerebral cortex”- an essential link in the transfer of most sensory information from periphery to cerebral cortex. Also plays a role in filtering information from the periphery. - -* Hypothalamus– lies ventral to thalamus. Controls a variety of functions, growth, eating, drinking, maternal behavior by regulating hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland. Connects to virtually every part of brain. Important in initiating and maintaining behaviors that the organism finds rewarding +* Thalamus– 'relay station to the cerebral cortex'– an essential link in the transfer of most sensory information from periphery to cerebral cortex. Also plays a role in filtering information from the periphery +* Hypothalamus– lies ventral to thalamus. Controls a variety of functions, growth, eating, drinking, maternal behavior by regulating hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland Connects to virtually every part of brain. Important in initiating and maintaining behaviors that the organism finds rewarding Note: @@ -590,12 +517,9 @@ The hypothalamus lies ventral to the thalamus and controls an array of important ## Thalamus -* Pair of ovoid structures. - -* Incoming sensory information relays in the thalamus before entering the cerebral cortex. Many sensory, motor, and cognitive functions - +* Pair of ovoid structures +* Incoming sensory information relays in the thalamus before entering the cerebral cortex. Many sensory, motor, and cognitive functions * Highly organized connections with cortex - * Connections are mostly reciprocal Note: @@ -606,94 +530,69 @@ Thalamus is essentially the relay nuclei that routes sensory information into th ## Thalamus– gateway to the cerebral cortex -
+
Thalamus (brown), ventricles (blue)
[C. Krebs CC BY-NC-SA, Univ. British Columbia](http://www.neuroanatomy.ca/3D_files/3D_index.html?id=1)
-
+
Fiber stain
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
Note: The thalamus is located in the middle of the brain… +*red nucleus is part of midbrain, without a corticospinal tract it controls gait. Baby crawling controlled by red nucleus. Arm swinging while walking* + --- ## Thalamus subdivisions -
+
Neuroscience 3/4e (5e Box A)
Note: …and is the gateway for routing information into the cerebral cortex. It contains a number of different nuclei and subdivision that take information from other brain regions including the brain stem and sends to appropriate primary sensory or higher order regions of the cerebral cortex. ---- - -## Thalamus subdivisions - -Note: - - - --- ## Hypothalamus - - -hypothalamus - -thalamus - - - -
- -
+
hypothalamus, sagittal mri
+
hypothalamus, coronal section
B. Crawford and K. McBurney, Univ. of Victoria
Note: +- mediates endocrine, autonomic and behavioral functions + Controls a variety of functions, growth, eating, drinking, maternal behavior by regulating hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland. Connects to virtually every part of brain. Important in initiating and maintaining behaviors that the organism finds rewarding --- -## Cerebral Hemispheres +## Cerebral hemispheres * Largest portion of the human brain - * Cerebral cortex– cognitive functioning - * Hippocampus– memory - * Basal ganglia– control of fine movement - * Amygdala– social behavior and expression of emotion Note: -Now let’s finally talk about highest order parts of teh central nervous system the cerebral hemispheres. +Now let’s finally talk about highest order parts of the central nervous system the cerebral hemispheres. The two cerebral hemispheres sit atop and surround the diencephalon and much of the brain stem. Seat of cognition, but it doesn't work alone! - - -limbic system includes both the amygdala is the integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation +Limbic system includes the amygdala, as well as the part of the basal ganglia, part of the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and the hippocampus. It is the integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation --- ## Cerebral Cortex -* Highly convoluted shape-grooves (sulci) and elevated regions (gyri). If sulci are especially deep called fissures. - -* About 2 to 4 mm thick, 100K neurons/mm2 - +* Highly convoluted shape-grooves (sulci) and elevated regions (gyri). If sulci are especially deep called fissures. +* About 2 to 4 mm thick, 100K neurons/mm2 * Segregated into left and right hemispheres connected to each other at the corpus callosum - * Anatomically divided into four lobes - * Functionally distinct regions - * Organized into layers - * Greatly expanded in humans [http://brainmuseum.org](http://brainmuseum.org) @@ -704,213 +603,151 @@ Note: --- -## Cerebral Cortex - -* Sulci (fissures) and Gyri - -* Lobar Anatomy - -* frontal - -* parietal - -* temporal - -* occipital - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Cortico-cortical pathways come in two flavors - -* within hemisphere - -* short vs. long (fasciculi) - -* between hemisphere - -* mostly homologous connections - -* commissures - -* corpus callosum - -
- -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Primary versus Non-Primary Cortex - -* Primary cortex - -* cortical areas that are the primary projection fields targeted by the sensory input pathways - -* cortical areas that are the principal fields which have neurons that project down into the spinal cord to control - -* Primary visual (calcarine sulcus) - -* Primary auditory - -* Primary somatosensory (post-central gyrus) - -* Primary motor (pre-central gyrus) - -* Non-primary cortex - -* everything in between - -* referred to collectively as association cortex - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex +## Lobes of the cerebral cortex * frontal– planning responses to stimuli, contains: motor cortex (precentral gyrus) - * parietal– somatic sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) - * temporal– audition and insular cortex (taste) - * occipital– vision -
+
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A3
+
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A3
+ Note: - --- -## Lobes of the cerebral hemispheres +## Cortico-cortical connection pathways -Primary motor cortex +
+
-Primary somatosensory cortex +* within hemisphere + * short vs. long (fasciculi) +* between hemisphere + * mostly homologous connections + * commissures + * corpus callosum + +
+ +
Fiber stain
[Brain Biodiversity Bank MSU, NSF](https://msu.edu/~brains/brains/human/coronal/montage.html)
+ +
Dorsal view
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A11
+ +
Dorsal view cut away
Neuroscience 5e Fig. A11
+ +
MRI-DTI dorsal projection
Neuroscience 5e
-
Note: +corpus callosum +: connections the cerebral hemispheres +: only in placental mammals (the eutherians) +: absent in monotremes and marsupials and other vertebrates (e.g. birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish) + +anterior commisure +: connects temporal lobes +: connects both amygdala +: crossed projects from olfactory tracts --- -## Ventral View of the Human Brain +## Primary versus non-primary cortex -
+
+
+ +* Primary cortex + * Cortical areas that are the primary projection fields targeted by the sensory input pathways + * Cortical areas that are the principal fields which have neurons that project down into the spinal cord for effecting control + * Primary visual (calcarine sulcus) + * Primary auditory + * Primary somatosensory (post-central gyrus) + * Primary motor (pre-central gyrus) + +
+ +
+
+ +* Non-primary cortex + * everything in between + * referred to collectively as association cortex + +
+ +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 26.1
Note: - - --- -## Internal Structures of the Brain Seen in a coronal section +## Brain organization summary + +
+ +
Pinky and the Brain
-
Note: - ---- - -## Internal Structures of the Brain Seen in a coronal section - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Internal structures of the brain seen in a coronal section - -[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snO68aJTOpM](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snO68aJTOpM) - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Cerebral cortex anatomy - -* The cerebral cortex is a layered structure - -* Layers can be seen when the brain is stained with dyes that highlight cell bodies (e.g. Nissl stain) - - - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Cortical neurons are organized into layers - -
- -Note: - - - --- ## Laminar organization of neocortex -* Cortex itself has a thickness of only about 3-4mm. - +* Cortex itself has a thickness of only about 2-4mm. * 6 layers (neocortex) - -* Layer IV is the primary input layer - -* Layers II and III are cortico-cortical output layers - -* Layers V and VI descending output layers to connect with subcortical regions (basal ganglia, thalamus, brain stem, spinal cord) + * Layer IV is the primary input layer + * Layers II and III are cortico-cortical output layers + * Layers V and VI descending output layers to connect with subcortical regions (basal ganglia, thalamus, brain stem, spinal cord) Note: +--- + +## Cortical neurons are organized into layers + +* The cerebral cortex is a layered structure +* Layers can be seen when the brain is stained with dyes that highlight cell bodies or fibers + +
Cells
+ +
Cells & fibers
Meynert 1884
+ +
Golgi stain
Jones 1981
+ + + + +Note: + +- *Meynert 1884, frontal lobe and cortex of calcarine fissure. First to describe cortical layering (bats, but also human and other animals). Sections fixed in potassium dichromate, stained with carmine, and cleared in oil of cloves.* + --- ## Defects in cortical development +
+
* lissencephaly: smooth brain - * do not have characteristic gyri patterns - * leads to death, severe epilepsies and mental retardation - * cause is defects in neural migration during development -
+
+ +
Olson and Walsh, 2002 Fig. 2
+ Note: @@ -918,283 +755,194 @@ Note: --- -## Question +## Which of the following is true? -* a. Do specific regions of the brain control specific functions? - -* or - -* b. Does each part of the brain do all functions? - -* or - -* c. Does a specific function come from many parts of the brain? +1. Do specific regions of the brain control specific functions? +2. Does each part of the brain do all functions? +3. Does a specific function come from many parts of the brain? Note: -Now lets expand on how functions are organized in the brain. Do you think that… - ---- - -## Question - -* a. Do specific regions of the brain control specific functions? - -* or - -* b. Does each part of the brain do all functions? - -* or - -* c. Does a specific function come from many parts of the brain? - -Note: +Now lets expand on how functions are organized in the brain. Which of the following is true it’s a bit of a trick question because both of these answers are partially right depending on how you define a part of the brain or what kind of function you’re talking about, but it is not the case that ---- - -## Title Text - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Title Text - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - + --- -## Korbinian Brodmann (early 1900s) +## Korbinian Brodmann (1909) * Used subtle anatomical differences in the brain to divide it into discrete areas or regions - * Based on distinctive nerve structures and characteristic arrangements of layers +* 52 discrete areas– many still used today -* 52 discrete areas– many still used today. - -
+
Note: So first lets discuss how we came to define different parts of the brain, specifically cerebral cortical areas ---- +-- ## Cortical regions have slightly different laminar organization -cell body stain +
cell body stain
-
Note: +He used cell body staining like the Nissl stain to examine differences in general patterning/layering across the cerebral cortex. --- ## Brodmann areas -
+
Brodmann 1909
+
Brodmann 1909 color
+ Note: +Note areas 4 (primary motor cortex), 1,2,3 (primary somatosensory cortex), area 17 (primary visual cortex), area 18 (secondary visual cortex), area 41,42 (primary auditory cortex, also part of 22) + +*Comparative localization teachings of the cerebral cortex in their principles, illustrated on the basis of Zellenbaues. Leipzig, Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlag, 1909 . 2nd edition, 1925. English translation by Laurence J. Garey: Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex by Korbinian Brodmann. Smith-Gordon, 1994; new impression: Imperial College Press., 1999* + +*area 44,45 Broca's areas* +*area 39,40,22 wernicke's areas* +*area 43 gustatory cortex* +*area 22 superior temporal gyrus* --- -## Brodmann areas +## Paul Broca (1861) -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Paul Broca - -* Believed that functions could be localized but were in the brain, phrenology of convolutions not of bumps. - -* Studied patients with aphasia-language disorders found in patients who have had a stroke. - -* 1861-had a patient that could understand language but could not speak, problems with the organizational aspects of language-found lesion in posterior frontal lobe- - -* This kind of aphasia is called motor or expressive aphasia - -* Eight patients with similar problems all had similar lesions, always on the left side. - -* “Nous parlons avec l’hemisphere gauche!” +* Believed that functions could be localized in the brain +* Studied patients with aphasia– language disorders found in patients who have had a stroke +* Had a patient that could understand language but could not speak, problems with the organizational aspects of language. Found lesion in posterior frontal lobe (Brodmann areas 44/45) +* This kind of aphasia is called a motor or expressive aphasia +* Eight patients with similar problems all had similar lesions, always on the left side +* "Nous parlons avec l’hemisphere gauche!" "We speak with the left hemisphere!" Note: We also define regions of the brain based on studies of brain lesions in patients. Recall the guy with the railroad spike from last lecture. Well the French physician Paul Broca in the 19th c. ---- +-- ## Broca and a patient’s brain -
+
Note: - --- -## Carl Wernicke +## Carl Wernicke (1874) -* Had a patient that could speak but not understand language. Called receptive aphasia. - -* Damage was to a different area-left side, posterior part of the left temporal lobe. Argued that only simple perceptual and motor activities were localized to a specific area and that most functions result from interconnections between areas. Idea of “distributive processing”. +* Had a patient that could speak but not understand language. Called receptive aphasia +* Damage was to a different area– left side, posterior part of the left temporal lobe (Brodmann areas 22/39/40) +* Argued that simple perceptual and motor activities were localized to a specific area and that most functions result from interconnections between areas. Idea of "distributive processing" Note: - --- -## The Major Brain Areas Involved in the Comprehension and Production of Language +## Major brain areas involved in the comprehension and production of language -
+
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 27.1
Note: +*Arcuate fasciculus: major association fiber tract in CNS that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas* --- -## Characteristics of Broca's and Wernicke's Aphasias +## Characteristics of Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias -[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67HMx-TdAZI](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67HMx-TdAZI) +
Neuroscience 5e Table 27.1
-
Note: -syntax: the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. +*Broca's aphasia patients have limited writing. Loss of the ability to produce language (spoken or written)* + +Apraxia +: verbal apraxia is difficulty starting and making voluntary movements (motor plans) needed for speech (with no paralysis or weakness of speech muscles) + +dysarthria +: inability to move the muscles of the tongue and mouth to produce speech + +agraphia +: inability to write + +Agnosia +: inability to process sensory information +: affects a single modality +syntax +:the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language -grammar: in linguistics it is set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. +Grammar +:in linguistics it is set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics - - ---- - -## Conduction aphasia + --- ## Other evidence of brain regionalization -* 1870 Fritsch and Hitzig– discrete limb movements in dogs can be produced by electrical stimulation of the contra-lateral motor cortex. Thus the right hand is controlled by the left hemisphere. Same as language. Dominant hemisphere. - -* 1950 Wilder Penfield– neurosurgeon, localized motor functions by stimulating specific areas of the brain. - -* Split brain studies by Roger Sperry 1960’s +* Fritsch and Hitzig (1870)– discrete limb movements in dogs can be produced by electrical stimulation of the contra-lateral motor cortex. Thus the right hand is controlled by the left hemisphere. 'Dominant' hemisphere +* Wilder Penfield (1950)– neurosurgeon, localized motor functions by stimulating specific areas of the brain +* Roger Sperry (1960s)– split brain patient studies Note: @@ -1205,181 +953,80 @@ And the Canadian physician Wilder Penfield performed classical mapping of motor And then there is the fascinating split brain studies of Sperry and Gazzaniga in the 1960s - --- ## Penfield stimulation studies -[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1SAC1HcAzc](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1SAC1HcAzc) - -
+
Stimululation based brain mapping
Note: -Start about minute 3. +Epileptic patient. mapping the cortical tissue before resecting the site of tissue where the seizures are being generated. + +*Start about minute 3* --- -## Split Brain studies: Nobel prize 1981 +## Split brain studies: Nobel prize 1981 -* The corpus callosum and anterior commissure are the two axon tracts that connect the two sides of the brain. They are sometimes cut to prevent the spread of severe epilepsies. +
+
+* The corpus callosum and anterior commissure are the two axon tracts that connect the two sides of the brain. They are sometimes cut to prevent the spread of severe epilepsies * Each side of the brain works independently from the other - * Roger Sperry showed that the left hemisphere dominates speech, writing, right hand stereognosis, analysis of right visual field - * Right hemisphere dominates, emotional coloring of language, spatial abilities, left hand stereognosis, analysis of left visual field -“for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres" +
+ +
R. Sperry
+ +
+
+ +>"for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres" + +
+ + + + Note: -The classic split brain studies which Roger Sperry got the Nobel for in 1981 showed the lateralized localization of language that Broca and Wernicke anticipated as well as several other higher functions. They took advance of the fact that in patients with severe epilepsies, sometimes the commisures connecting the two hemispheres are cut to prevent the spread of seizures. +The classic split brain studies which Roger Sperry got the Nobel for in 1981 showed the lateralized localization of language that Broca and Wernicke anticipated as well as several other higher functions. They took advance of the fact that in patients with severe epilepsies, sometimes the commissures connecting the two hemispheres are cut to prevent the spread of seizures. -And since each side of the brain to some degree can work indpedently of the other +And since each side of the brain to some degree can work independently of the other - - -humans are 90% right handed as a population and the degree of lateralization among individuals is strong, regardless of left or right-handedness - - - -96% of right handers having left hemisphere speech, compared with 70% of left handers - - - -Twin studies have demonstrated some genetic influence on handedness, but 75% of the variance is nongenetic and individually specific, with only 25% explained by genes [#Bishop:2013]. Even the segregation of of handedness and language laterality suggests a complex polygenic set of factors, with 96% of right handers having left hemisphere speech, compared with 70% of left handers [#Bishop:2013]. +* Humans are 90% right handed as a population and the degree of lateralization among individuals is strong, regardless of left or right-handedness +* 96% of right handers having left hemisphere speech, compared with 70% of left handers +* Twin studies have demonstrated some genetic influence on handedness, but 75% of the variance is nongenetic and individually specific, with only 25% explained by genes [#Bishop:2013]. Even the segregation of of handedness and language laterality suggests a complex polygenic set of factors, with 96% of right handers having left hemisphere speech, compared with 70% of left handers [#Bishop:2013]. --- -## Confirmation of hemispheric specialization for language +## Confirmation of hemispheric specialization for language -“a cube” +
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 27.3
-“a non-round thing” -“a cube” - -
Note: -Here is an illustration of the experiment performed by by Sperry and his colleagues for these split brain studies. After the corpus callosum connecting the two hemisphere was cut to alleviate epileptic seizures, the patients were asked to fixate on a point and name objects presented in each visual field. Now you haven’t about the visual system yet, but as sensory information from your left hand goes to your right hemisphere, visual information from the lateral part of your left visual field goes to your right visual cortex. Split brain patients could not correctly name objects presented in their left visual field, presumably because that info could not reach the left hemispheres because the callosal connections were severed. But split brain patients could correctly name an object when presented in their right visual field, because that information was received by the left visual cortex and could be passed onto the language centers. - - +Here is an illustration of the experiment performed by by Sperry and his colleagues for these split brain studies. After the corpus callosum connecting the two hemisphere was cut to alleviate epileptic seizures, the patients were asked to fixate on a point and name objects presented in each visual field. Now you haven’t learned about the visual system yet, but just as sensory information from your left hand goes to your right hemisphere, visual information from the lateral part of your left visual field goes to your right visual cortex. Split brain patients could not correctly name objects presented in their left visual field, presumably because that info could not reach the left hemispheres because the callosal connections were severed. But split brain patients could correctly name an object when presented in their right visual field, because that information was received by the left visual cortex and could be passed onto the language centers. In all Sperry and his colleagues showed that language, mathematical, and logical reasoning is dominant in the left hemisphere and that shape recognition, spatial attention, emotional processing, and creativity in more dominant in the right hemisphere. +-- ---- - -## Brain imaging techniques - -* Computerized tomography (CT) scan– uses X-rays in 3-dimensions to generate a brain image. - -* Can be digitally sectioned to show internal areas of the brain. - -* Can distinguish between grey matter and white matter, see the ventricles, has resolution of several millimeters. - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - -* Uses rotating magnets to generate image - -* Non-invasive - -* Can view images from any angle - -* Resolution under 1 mm - -* Can be adapted to do functional MRI imaging. - -Note: - - - ---- - -## Tumor detection - -MRI - -CT-SCAN - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - -[http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/Animation01-01MagneticResonanceImaging.mov](http://courses.pbsci.ucsc.edu/mcdb/bio125/Animation01-01MagneticResonanceImaging.mov) - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - -## functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - -* Oxy-hemoglobin and deoxy-hemoglobin have different magnetic resonance signals - -* Brain areas activated by a specific task utilize O2, then a pulse of O2 comes back and creates an influx of oxy-hemoglobin. - -* Can repeat task many times over. - -* Spatial resolution– millimeters - -* Temporal resolution– seconds - -Note: - - - ---- - -## fMRI - - - -
- -Note: - - - ---- - ## Mapping brain activity with fMRI -
+
Neuroscience 5e Fig. 27.6
Note: - - ---- - -## Lie detection with fMRI - -
- -Note: - -build a new age lie detector +- functional magnetic resonance imaging +- different patterns of brain activity localization depending on what the task is +- Actually sitting inside a small space magnet ---